Regulation (EU) 2023/2854 of the European Parliament and of the Council of 13 December 2023 on harmonised rules on fair access to and use of data and amending Regulation (EU) 2017/2394 and Directive (EU) 2020/1828 (Data Act) (Text with EEA relevance)

(80) Data processing services should cover services that allow ubiquitous and on-demand network access to a configurable, scalable and elastic shared pool of distributed computing resources. Those computing resources include resources such as networks, servers or other virtual or physical infrastructure, software, including software development tools, storage, applications and services. The capability of the customer of the data processing service to unilaterally self-provision computing capabilities, such as server time or network storage, without any human interaction by the provider of data processing services could be described as requiring minimal management effort and as entailing minimal interaction between provider and customer. The term ‘ubiquitous’ is used to describe the computing capabilities provided over the network and accessed through mechanisms promoting the use of heterogeneous thin or thick client platforms (from web browsers to mobile devices and workstations). The term ‘scalable’ refers to computing resources that are flexibly allocated by the provider of data processing services, irrespective of the geographical location of the resources, in order to handle fluctuations in demand. The term ‘elastic’ is used to describe those computing resources that are provisioned and released according to demand in order to rapidly increase or decrease resources available depending on workload. The term ‘shared pool’ is used to describe those computing resources that are provided to multiple users who share a common access to the service, but where the processing is carried out separately for each user, although the service is provided from the same electronic equipment. The term ‘distributed’ is used to describe those computing resources that are located on different networked computers or devices and which communicate and coordinate among themselves by message passing. The term ‘highly distributed’ is used to describe data processing services that involve data processing closer to where data are being generated or collected, for instance in a connected data processing device. Edge computing, which is a form of such highly distributed data processing, is expected to generate new business models and cloud service delivery models, which should be open and interoperable from the outset.

(81) The generic concept ‘data processing services’ covers a substantial number of services with a very broad range of different purposes, functionalities and technical set-ups. As commonly understood by providers and users and in line with broadly used standards, data processing services fall into one or more of the following three data processing service delivery models, namely Infrastructure as a Service (IaaS), Platform as a service (PaaS) and Software as a Service (SaaS). Those service delivery models represent a specific, pre-packaged combination of ICT resources offered by a provider of data processing service. Those three fundamental data processing delivery models are further complemented by emerging variations, each comprised of a distinct combination of ICT resources, such as Storage as a Service and Database as a Service. Data processing services can be categorised in a more granular way and divided into a non-exhaustive list of sets of data processing services that share the same primary objective and main functionalities as well as the same type of data processing models, that are not related to the service’s operational characteristics (same service type). Services falling under the same service type may share the same data processing service model, however, two databases might appear to share the same primary objective, but after considering their data processing model, distribution model and the use cases that they are targeted at, such databases could fall into a more granular subcategory of similar services. Services of the same service type may have different and competing characteristics such as performance, security, resilience, and quality of service.

(82) Undermining the extraction of the exportable data that belongs to the customer from the source provider of data processing services can impede the restoration of the service functionalities in the infrastructure of the destination provider of data processing services. In order to facilitate the customer’s exit strategy, avoid unnecessary and burdensome tasks and to ensure that the customer does not lose any of their data as a consequence of the switching process, the source provider of data processing services should inform the customer in advance of the scope of the data that can be exported once that customer decides to switch to a different service provided by a different provider of data processing services or to move to an on-premises ICT infrastructure. The scope of exportable data should include, at a minimum, input and output data, including metadata, directly or indirectly generated, or cogenerated, by the customer’s use of the data processing service, excluding any assets or data of the provider of data processing services or a third party. The exportable data should exclude any assets or data of the provider of data processing services or of the third party that are protected by intellectual property rights or constituting trade secrets of that provider or of that third party, or data related to the integrity and security of the service, the export of which will expose the providers of data processing services to cybersecurity vulnerabilities. Those exemptions should not impede or delay the switching process.

(83) Digital assets refer to elements in digital form for which the customer has the right of use, including applications and metadata related to the configuration of settings, security, and access and control rights management, and other elements such as manifestations of virtualisation technologies, including virtual machines and containers. Digital assets can be transferred where the customer has the right of use independent of the contractual relationship with the data processing service it intends to switch from. Those other elements are essential for the effective use of the customer’s data and applications in the environment of the destination provider of data processing services.

(84) This Regulation aims to facilitate switching between data processing services, which encompasses conditions and actions that are necessary for a customer to terminate a contract for a data processing service, to conclude one or more new contracts with different providers of data processing services, to port its exportable data and digital assets, and where applicable, benefit from functional equivalence.

(85) Switching is a customer-driven operation consisting of several steps, including data extraction, which refers to the downloading of data from the ecosystem of the source provider of data processing services; transformation, where the data is structured in a way that does not match the schema of the target location; and the uploading of the data in a new destination location. In a specific situation outlined in this Regulation, unbundling of a particular service from the contract and moving it to a different provider should also be considered to be switching. The switching process is sometimes managed on behalf of the customer by a third-party entity. Accordingly, all rights and obligations of the customer established by this Regulation, including the obligation to cooperate in good faith, should be understood to apply to such a third-party entity in those circumstances. Providers of data processing services and customers have different levels of responsibilities, depending on the steps of the process referred to. For instance, the source provider of data processing services is responsible for extracting the data to a machine-readable format, but it is the customer and the destination provider of data processing services who are to upload the data to the new environment, unless a specific professional transition service has been obtained. A customer who intends to exercise rights related to switching, which are provided for in this Regulation, should inform the source provider of data processing services of the decision to either switch to a different provider of data processing services, switch to an on-premises ICT infrastructure or to delete that customer’s assets and erase its exportable data.

(86) Functional equivalence means re-establishing, on the basis of the customer’s exportable data and digital assets, a minimum level of functionality in the environment of a new data processing service of the same service type after switching, where the destination data processing service delivers a materially comparable outcome in response to the same input for shared features supplied to the customer under the contract. Providers of data processing services can only be expected to facilitate functional equivalence for the features that both the source and destination data processing services offer independently. This Regulation does not constitute an obligation to facilitate functional equivalence for providers of data processing services other than those offering services of the IaaS delivery model.

(87) Data processing services are used across sectors and vary in complexity and service type. This is an important consideration with regard to the porting process and timeframes. Nonetheless, an extension of the transitional period on the grounds of technical unfeasibility to allow the finalisation of the switching process in the given timeframe should be invoked only in duly justified cases. The burden of proof in that regard should fall fully on the provider of the data processing service concerned. This is without prejudice to the exclusive right of the customer to extend the transitional period once for a period that the customer considers to be more appropriate for its own purposes. The customer may evoke that right to an extension prior to or during the transitional period, taking into account that the contract remains applicable during the transitional period.

(88) Switching charges are charges imposed by providers of data processing services on the customers for the switching process. Typically, those charges are intended to pass on costs which the source provider of data processing services may incur because of the switching process to the customer who wishes to switch. Common examples of switching charges are costs related to the transit of data from one provider of data processing services to another or to an on-premises ICT infrastructure (data egress charges) or the costs incurred for specific support actions during the switching process. Unnecessarily high data egress charges and other unjustified charges unrelated to actual switching costs inhibit customers from switching, restrict the free flow of data, have the potential to limit competition and cause lock-in effects for the customers by reducing incentives to choose a different or additional service provider. Switching charges should therefore be abolished after three years from the date of entry into force of this Regulation. Providers of data processing services should be able to impose reduced switching charges up to that date.

(89) A source provider of data processing services should be able to outsource certain tasks and compensate third-party entities in order to comply with the obligations provided for in this Regulation. A customer should not bear the costs arising from the outsourcing of services concluded by the source provider of data processing services during the switching process and such costs should be considered to be unjustified unless they cover work undertaken by the provider of data processing services at the customer’s request for additional support in the switching process which goes beyond the switching obligations of the provider as expressly provided for in this Regulation. Nothing in this Regulation prevents a customer from compensating third-party entities for support in the migration process or parties from agreeing on contracts for data processing services of a fixed duration, including proportionate early termination penalties to cover the early termination of such contracts, in accordance with Union or national law. In order to foster competition, the gradual withdrawal of the charges associated with switching between different providers of data processing services should specifically include data egress charges imposed by a provider of data processing services on a customer. Standard service fees for the provision of the data processing services themselves are not switching charges. Those standard service fees are not subject to withdrawal and remain applicable until the contract for the provision of the relevant services ceases to apply. This Regulation allows the customer to request the provision of additional services that go beyond the provider’s switching obligations under this Regulation. Those additional services, can be performed and charged for by the provider when they are performed at the customer’s request and the customer agrees to the price of those services in advance.

(90) An ambitious and innovation-inspiring regulatory approach to interoperability is needed to overcome vendor lock-in, which undermines competition and the development of new services. Interoperability between data processing services involves multiple interfaces and layers of infrastructure and software and is rarely confined to a binary test of being achievable or not. Instead, the building of such interoperability is subject to a cost-benefit analysis which is necessary to establish whether it is worthwhile to pursue reasonably predictable results. The ISO/IEC 19941:2017 is an important international standard constituting a reference for the achievement of the objectives of this Regulation, as it contains technical considerations clarifying the complexity of such a process.

(91) Where providers of data processing services are in turn customers of data processing services provided by a third-party provider, they will benefit from more effective switching themselves while simultaneously remaining bound by this Regulation’s obligations regarding their own service offerings.

(92) Providers of data processing services should be required to offer all the assistance and support within their capacity, proportionate to their respective obligations, that is required to make the switching process to a service of a different provider of data processing services successful, effective and secure. This Regulation does not require providers of data processing services to develop new categories of data processing services, including within, or on the basis of, the ICT infrastructure of different providers of data processing services in order to guarantee functional equivalence in an environment other than their own systems. A source provider of data processing services does not have access to or insights into the environment of the destination provider of data processing services. Functional equivalence should not be understood to oblige the source provider of data processing services to rebuild the service in question within the infrastructure of the destination provider of data processing services. Instead, the source provider of data processing services should take all reasonable measures within its power to facilitate the process of achieving functional equivalence through the provision of capabilities, adequate information, documentation, technical support and, where appropriate, the necessary tools.

(93) Providers of data processing services should also be required to remove existing obstacles and not impose new ones, including for customers wishing to switch to an on-premises ICT infrastructure. Obstacles can, inter alia, be of a pre-commercial, commercial, technical, contractual or organisational nature. Providers of data processing services should also be required to remove obstacles to unbundling a specific individual service from other data processing services provided under a contract and make the relevant service available for switching, in the absence of major and demonstrated technical obstacles that prevent such unbundling.

(94) Throughout the switching process, a high level of security should be maintained. This means that the source provider of data processing services should extend the level of security to which it committed for the service to all technical arrangements for which such provider is responsible during the switching process, such as network connections or physical devices. Existing rights relating to the termination of contracts, including those introduced by Regulation (EU) 2016/679 and Directive (EU) 2019/770 of the European Parliament and of the Council (31) should not be affected. This Regulation should not be understood to prevent a provider of data processing services from providing to customers new and improved services, features and functionalities or from competing with other providers of data processing services on that basis.

(95) The information to be provided by providers of data processing services to the customer could support the customer’s exit strategy. That information should include procedures for initiating switching from the data processing service; the machine-readable data formats to which the user’s data can be exported; the tools intended to export data, including open interfaces as well as information on compatibility with harmonised standards or common specifications based on open interoperability specifications; information on known technical restrictions and limitations that could have an impact on the switching process; and the estimated time necessary to complete the switching process.

(96) To facilitate interoperability and switching between data processing services, users and providers of data processing services should consider the use of implementation and compliance tools, in particular those published by the Commission in the form of an EU Cloud Rulebook and a Guidance on public procurement of data processing services. In particular, standard contractual clauses are beneficial because they increase confidence in data processing services, create a more balanced relationship between users and providers of data processing services and improve legal certainty with regard to the conditions that apply for switching to other data processing services. In that context, users and providers of data processing services should consider the use of standard contractual clauses or other self-regulatory compliance tools provided that they fully comply with this Regulation, developed by relevant bodies or expert groups established under Union law.

(97) In order to facilitate switching between data processing services, all parties involved, including both source and destination providers of data processing services, should cooperate in good faith to make the switching process effective, enable the secure and timely transfer of necessary data in a commonly used, machine-readable format, and by means of open interfaces, while avoiding service disruptions and maintaining continuity of the service.

(98) Data processing services which concern services of which the majority of main features has been custom-built to respond to the specific demands of an individual customer or where all components have been developed for the purposes of an individual customer should be exempted from some of the obligations applicable to data processing service switching. This should not include services which the provider of data processing services offers at a broad commercial scale via its service catalogue. It is among the obligations of the provider of data processing services to duly inform prospective customers of such services, prior to the conclusion of a contract, of the obligations laid down in this Regulation that do not apply to the relevant services. Nothing prevents the provider of data processing services from eventually deploying such services at scale, in which case that provider would have to comply with all obligations for switching laid down in this Regulation.

(99) In line with the minimum requirement allowing switching between providers of data processing services, this Regulation also aims to improve interoperability for in-parallel use of multiple data processing services with complementary functionalities. This relates to situations in which customers do not terminate a contract to switch to a different provider of data processing services, but where multiple services of different providers are used in parallel, in an interoperable manner, to benefit from the complementary functionalities of the different services in the set-up of the customer’s system. However, it is recognised that the egress of data from one provider of data processing services to another in order to facilitate the in-parallel use of services can be an ongoing activity, in contrast with the one-off egress required as part of the switching process. Providers of data processing services should therefore continue to be able to impose data egress charges, not exceeding the costs incurred, for the purposes of in-parallel use after three years from the date of entry into force of this Regulation. This is important, inter alia, for the successful deployment of multi-cloud strategies, which allow customers to implement future-proof ICT strategies and which decrease dependence on individual providers of data processing services. Facilitating a multi-cloud approach for customers of data processing services can also contribute to increasing their digital operational resilience, as recognised for financial service institutions in Regulation (EU) 2022/2554 of the European Parliament and of the Council (32).

(100) Open interoperability specifications and standards developed in accordance with Annex II to Regulation (EU) No 1025/2012 of the European Parliament and of the Council (33) in the field of interoperability and portability are expected to enable a multi-vendor cloud environment, which is a key requirement for open innovation in the European data economy. As the market adoption of identified standards under the cloud standardisation coordination (CSC) initiative concluded in 2016 has been limited, it is also necessary that the Commission relies on parties in the market to develop relevant open interoperability specifications to keep up with the fast pace of technological development in this industry. Such open interoperability specifications can then be adopted by the Commission in the form of common specifications. In addition, where market-driven processes have not demonstrated a capacity to establish common specifications or standards that facilitate effective cloud interoperability at the PaaS and SaaS levels, the Commission should be able, on the basis of this Regulation and in accordance with Regulation (EU) No 1025/2012, to request European standardisation bodies to develop such standards for specific service types where such standards do not yet exist. In addition to this, the Commission will encourage parties in the market to develop relevant open interoperability specifications. After consulting stakeholders, the Commission, by means of implementing acts, should be able to mandate the use of harmonised standards for interoperability or common specifications for specific service types through a reference in a central Union standards repository for the interoperability of data processing services. Providers of data processing services should ensure compatibility with those harmonised standards and common specifications based on open interoperability specifications, which should not have an adverse impact on the security or integrity of data. Harmonised standards for the interoperability of data processing services and common specifications based on open interoperability specifications will be referenced only if they comply with the criteria specified in this Regulation, which have the same meaning as the requirements in Annex II to Regulation (EU) No 1025/2012 and the interoperability facets defined under the international standard ISO/IEC 19941:2017. In addition, standardisation should take into account the needs of SMEs.

(101) Third countries may adopt laws, regulations and other legal acts that aim to directly transfer or provide governmental access to non-personal data located outside their borders, including in the Union. Judgments of courts or tribunals or decisions of other judicial or administrative authorities, including law enforcement authorities in third countries requiring such transfer or access to non-personal data should be enforceable when based on an international agreement, such as a mutual legal assistance treaty, in force between the requesting third country and the Union or a Member State. In other cases, situations may arise where a request to transfer or provide access to non-personal data arising from a third country law conflicts with an obligation to protect such data under Union law or under the national law of the relevant Member State, in particular regarding the protection of fundamental rights of the individual, such as the right to security and the right to an effective remedy, or the fundamental interests of a Member State related to national security or defence, as well as the protection of commercially sensitive data, including the protection of trade secrets, and the protection of intellectual property rights, including its contractual undertakings regarding confidentiality in accordance with such law. In the absence of international agreements regulating such matters, transfer of or access to non-personal data should be allowed only if it has been verified that the third country’s legal system requires the reasons and proportionality of the decision to be set out, that the court order or the decision is specific in character, and that the reasoned objection of the addressee is subject to a review by a competent third-country court or tribunal which is empowered to take duly into account the relevant legal interests of the provider of such data. Wherever possible under the terms of the data access request of the third country’s authority, the provider of data processing services should be able to inform the customer whose data are being requested before granting access to those data in order to verify the presence of a potential conflict of such access with Union or national law, such as that on the protection of commercially sensitive data, including the protection of trade secrets and intellectual property rights and the contractual undertakings regarding confidentiality.

(102) To foster further trust in data, it is important that safeguards to ensure control of their data by Union citizens, the public sector bodies and businesses are implemented to the extent possible. In addition, Union law, values and standards regarding, inter alia, security, data protection and privacy, and consumer protection should be upheld. In order to prevent unlawful governmental access to non-personal data by third-country authorities, providers of data processing services subject to this Regulation, such as cloud and edge services, should take all reasonable measures to prevent access to systems on which non-personal data are stored, including, where relevant, through the encryption of data, frequent submission to audits, verified adherence to relevant security reassurance certification schemes, and by the modification of corporate policies.

(103) Standardisation and semantic interoperability should play a key role to provide technical solutions to ensure interoperability within and among common European data spaces which are purpose or sector specific or cross-sectoral interoperable frameworks for common standards and practices to share or jointly process data for, inter alia, the development of new products and services, scientific research or civil society initiatives. This Regulation lays down certain essential requirements for interoperability. Participants in data spaces that offer data or data services to other participants, which are entities facilitating or engaging in data sharing within common European data spaces, including data holders, should comply with those requirements insofar as elements under their control are concerned. Compliance with those rules can be ensured by adhering to the essential requirements laid down in this Regulation, or presumed by complying with harmonised standards or common specifications via a presumption of conformity. In order to facilitate conformity with the requirements for interoperability, it is necessary to provide for a presumption of conformity of interoperability solutions that meet harmonised standards or parts thereof in accordance with Regulation (EU) No 1025/2012, which represents the framework by default to elaborate standards that provide for such presumptions. The Commission should assess barriers to interoperability and prioritise standardisation needs, on the basis of which it may request one or more European standardisation organisations, pursuant to Regulation (EU) No 1025/2012, to draft harmonised standards which satisfy the essential requirements laid down in this Regulation. Where such requests do not result in harmonised standards or such harmonised standards are insufficient to ensure conformity with the essential requirements of this Regulation, the Commission should be able to adopt common specifications in those areas provided that in so doing it duly respects the role and functions of standardisation organisations. Common specification should be adopted only as an exceptional fall-back solution to facilitate compliance with the essential requirements of this Regulation, or when the standardisation process is blocked, or when there are delays in the establishment of appropriate harmonised standards. Where a delay is due to the technical complexity of the standard in question, this should be considered by the Commission before contemplating the establishment of common specifications. Common specifications should be developed in an open and inclusive manner and take into account, where relevant, the advice of the European Data Innovation Board (EDIB) established by Regulation (EU) 2022/868. Additionally, common specifications in different sectors could be adopted, in accordance with Union or national law, on the basis of specific needs of those sectors. Furthermore, the Commission should be enabled to mandate the development of harmonised standards for the interoperability of data processing services.

(104) To promote the interoperability of tools for the automated execution of data sharing agreements, it is necessary to lay down essential requirements for smart contracts which professionals create for others or integrate in applications that support the implementation of agreements for data sharing. In order to facilitate the conformity of such smart contracts with those essential requirements, it is necessary to provide for a presumption of conformity of smart contracts that meet harmonised standards or parts thereof in accordance with Regulation (EU) No 1025/2012. The notion of ‘smart contract’ in this Regulation is technologically neutral. Smart contracts can, for example, be connected to an electronic ledger. The essential requirements should apply only to the vendors of smart contracts, although not where they develop smart contracts in-house exclusively for internal use. The essential requirement to ensure that smart contracts can be interrupted and terminated implies mutual consent by the parties to the data sharing agreement. The applicability of the relevant rules of civil, contractual and consumer protection law to data sharing agreements remains or should remain unaffected by the use of smart contracts for the automated execution of such agreements.

(105) To demonstrate fulfilment of the essential requirements of this Regulation, the vendor of a smart contract, or in the absence thereof, the person whose trade, business or profession involves the deployment of smart contracts for others in the context of executing an agreement or part of it, to make data available in the context of this Regulation, should perform a conformity assessment and issue an EU declaration of conformity. Such a conformity assessment should be subject to the general principles set out in Regulation (EC) No 765/2008 of the European Parliament and of the Council (34) and Decision No 768/2008/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council (35).

(106) Besides the obligation on professional developers of smart contracts to comply with essential requirements, it is also important to encourage those participants within data spaces that offer data or data-based services to other participants within and across common European data spaces to support interoperability of tools for data sharing including smart contracts.

(107) In order to ensure the application and enforcement of this Regulation, Member States should designate one or more competent authorities. If a Member State designates more than one competent authority, it should also designate from among them a data coordinator. Competent authorities should cooperate with each other. Through the exercise of their powers of investigation in accordance with applicable national procedures, competent authorities should be able to search for and obtain information, in particular in relation to the activities of entities within their competence and, including in the context of joint investigations, with due regard to the fact that oversight and enforcement measures concerning an entity under the competence of another Member State should be adopted by the competent authority of that other Member State, where relevant, in accordance with the procedures relating to cross-border cooperation. Competent authorities should assist each other in a timely manner, in particular when a competent authority in a Member State holds relevant information for an investigation carried out by the competent authorities in other Member States, or is able to gather such information to which the competent authorities in the Member State where the entity is established do not have access. Competent authorities and data coordinators should be identified in a public register maintained by the Commission. The data coordinator could be an additional means for facilitating cooperation in cross-border situations, such as when a competent authority from a given Member State does not know which authority it should approach in the data coordinator’s Member State, for example where the case is related to more than one competent authority or sector. The data coordinator should act, inter alia, as a single point of contact for all issues related to the application of this Regulation. Where no data coordinator has been designated, the competent authority should assume the tasks assigned to the data coordinator under this Regulation. The authorities responsible for the supervision of compliance with data protection law and competent authorities designated under Union or national law should be responsible for the application of this Regulation in their areas of competence. In order to avoid conflicts of interest, the competent authorities responsible for the application and enforcement of this Regulation in the area of making data available following a request on the basis of an exceptional need should not benefit from the right to submit such a request.

(108) In order to enforce their rights under this Regulation, natural and legal persons should be entitled to seek redress for infringements of their rights under this Regulation by lodging complaints. The data coordinator should, upon request, provide all the necessary information to natural and legal persons for the lodging of their complaints with the appropriate competent authority. Those authorities should be obliged to cooperate to ensure a complaint is appropriately handled and resolved effectively and in a timely manner. In order to make use of the consumer protection cooperation network mechanism and to enable representative actions, this Regulation amends the Annexes to Regulation (EU) 2017/2394 of the European Parliament and of the Council (36) and Directive (EU) 2020/1828 of the European Parliament and of the Council (37).

(109) Competent authorities should ensure that infringements of the obligations laid down in this Regulation are subject to penalties. Such penalties could include financial penalties, warnings, reprimands or orders to bring business practices into compliance with the obligations imposed by this Regulation. Penalties established by the Member States should be effective, proportionate and dissuasive, and should take into account the recommendations of the EDIB, thus contributing to achieving the greatest possible level of consistency in the establishment and application of penalties. Where appropriate, competent authorities should make use of interim measures to limit the effects of an alleged infringement while the investigation of that infringement is ongoing. In so doing, they should take into account, inter alia the nature, gravity, scale and duration of the infringement in view of the public interest at stake, the scope and kind of activities carried out, and the economic capacity of the infringing party. They should also take into account whether the infringing party systematically or recurrently fails to comply with its obligations under this Regulation. In order to ensure that the principle of ne bis in idem is respected, and in particular to avoid that the same infringement of the obligations laid down in this Regulation is penalised more than once, a Member State that intends to exercise its competence in relation to an infringing party that is not established and has not designated a legal representative in the Union should, without undue delay, inform all data coordinators as well as the Commission.

(110) The EDIB should advise and assist the Commission in coordinating national practices and policies on the topics covered by this Regulation as well as in delivering on its objectives in relation to technical standardisation to enhance interoperability. It should also play a key role in facilitating comprehensive discussions between competent authorities concerning the application and enforcement of this Regulation. That exchange of information is designed to increase effective access to justice as well as enforcement and judicial cooperation across the Union. Among other functions, the competent authorities should make use of the EDIB as a platform to evaluate, coordinate and adopt recommendations on the setting of penalties for infringements of this Regulation. It should allow for competent authorities, with the assistance of the Commission, to coordinate the optimal approach to determining and imposing such penalties. That approach prevents fragmentation while allowing for Member State’s flexibility and should lead to effective recommendations that support the consistent application of this Regulation. The EDIB should also have an advisory role in the standardisation processes and the adoption of common specifications by means of implementing acts, in the adoption of delegated acts to establish a monitoring mechanism for switching charges, imposed by providers of data processing services and to further specify the essential requirements for the interoperability of data, of data sharing mechanisms and services, as well as of the common European data spaces. It should also advise and assist the Commission in the adoption of the guidelines laying down interoperability specifications for the functioning of the common European data spaces.

(111) In order to help enterprises to draft and negotiate contracts, the Commission should develop and recommend non-binding model contractual terms for business-to-business data sharing contracts, where necessary taking into account the conditions in specific sectors and the existing practices with voluntary data sharing mechanisms. Those model contractual terms should be primarily a practical tool to help in particular SMEs to conclude a contract. When used widely and integrally, those model contractual terms should also have the beneficial effect of influencing the design of contracts regarding access to and the use of data and therefore lead more broadly towards fairer contractual relations when accessing and sharing data.

(112) In order to eliminate the risk that holders of data in databases obtained or generated by means of physical components, such as sensors, of a connected product and a related service or other machine-generated data, claim the sui generis right under Article 7 of Directive 96/9/EC, and in so doing hinder, in particular, the effective exercise of the right of users to access and use data and the right to share data with third parties under this Regulation, it should be clarified that the sui generis right does not apply to such databases. That does not affect the possible application of the sui generis right under Article 7 of Directive 96/9/EC to databases containing data falling outside the scope of this Regulation, provided that the requirements for protection pursuant to paragraph 1 of that Article are fulfilled.

(113) In order to take account of technical aspects of data processing services, the power to adopt acts in accordance with Article 290 TFEU should be delegated to the Commission in respect of supplementing this Regulation in order to establish a monitoring mechanism on switching charges imposed by providers of data processing services on the market, and to further specify the essential requirements in respect of interoperability for participants in data spaces that offer data or data services to other participants. It is of particular importance that the Commission carry out appropriate consultations during its preparatory work, including at expert level, and that those consultations be conducted in accordance with the principles laid down in the Interinstitutional Agreement of 13 April 2016 on Better Law-Making (38). In particular, to ensure equal participation in the preparation of delegated acts, the European Parliament and the Council receive all documents at the same time as Member States’ experts, and their experts systematically have access to meetings of Commission expert groups dealing with the preparation of delegated acts.

(114) In order to ensure uniform conditions for the implementation of this Regulation, implementing powers should be conferred on the Commission in respect of the adoption of common specifications to ensure the interoperability of data, of data sharing mechanisms and services, as well as of common European data spaces, common specifications on the interoperability of data processing services, and common specifications on the interoperability of smart contracts. Implementing powers should also be conferred on the Commission for the purpose of publishing the references of harmonised standards and common specifications for the interoperability of data processing services in a central Union standards repository for the interoperability of data processing services. Those powers should be exercised in accordance with Regulation (EU) No 182/2011 of the European Parliament and of the Council (39).

(115) This Regulation should be without prejudice to rules addressing needs specific to individual sectors or areas of public interest. Such rules may include additional requirements on the technical aspects of data access, such as interfaces for data access, or how data access could be provided, for example directly from the product or via data intermediation services. Such rules may also include limits on the rights of data holders to access or use user data, or other aspects beyond data access and use, such as governance aspects or security requirements, including cybersecurity requirements. This Regulation should also be without prejudice to more specific rules in the context of the development of common European data spaces or, subject to the exceptions provided for in this Regulation, to Union and national law providing for access to and authorising the use of data for scientific research purposes.

(116) This Regulation should not affect the application of the rules of competition, in particular Articles 101 and 102 TFEU. The measures provided for in this Regulation should not be used to restrict competition in a manner contrary to the TFEU.

(117) In order to allow actors within the scope of this Regulation to adapt to the new rules provided for herein, and to make the necessary technical arrangements, those rules should apply from 12 September 2025.

(118) The European Data Protection Supervisor and the European Data Protection Board were consulted in accordance with Article 42(1) and (2) of Regulation (EU) 2018/1725 and delivered their opinion on 4 May 2022.

(119) Since the objectives of this Regulation, namely ensuring fairness in the allocation of value from data among actors in the data economy and fostering fair access to and use of data in order to contribute to establishing a genuine internal market for data, cannot be sufficiently achieved by the Member States but can rather, by reason of the scale or effects of the action and cross-border use of data, be better achieved at Union level, the Union may adopt measures, in accordance with the principle of subsidiarity as set out in Article 5 of the Treaty on European Union. In accordance with the principle of proportionality as set out in that Article, this Regulation does not go beyond what is necessary in order to achieve those objectives,

HAVE ADOPTED THIS REGULATION:

CHAPTER I

GENERAL PROVISIONS

Article 1

Subject matter and scope

(a) the making available of product data and related service data to the user of the connected product or related service;

(b) the making available of data by data holders to data recipients;

(c) the making available of data by data holders to public sector bodies, the Commission, the European Central Bank and Union bodies, where there is an exceptional need for those data for the performance of a specific task carried out in the public interest;

(d) facilitating switching between data processing services;

(e) introducing safeguards against unlawful third-party access to non-personal data; and

(f) the development of interoperability standards for data to be accessed, transferred and used.

(a) Chapter II applies to data, with the exception of content, concerning the performance, use and environment of connected products and related services;

(b) Chapter III applies to any private sector data that is subject to statutory data sharing obligations;

(c) Chapter IV applies to any private sector data accessed and used on the basis of contract between enterprises;

(d) Chapter V applies to any private sector data with a focus on non-personal data;

(e) Chapter VI applies to any data and services processed by providers of data processing services;

(f) Chapter VII applies to any non-personal data held in the Union by providers of data processing services.

(a) manufacturers of connected products placed on the market in the Union and providers of related services, irrespective of the place of establishment of those manufacturers and providers;

(b) users in the Union of connected products or related services as referred to in point (a);

(c) data holders, irrespective of their place of establishment, that make data available to data recipients in the Union;

(d) data recipients in the Union to whom data are made available;

(e) public sector bodies, the Commission, the European Central Bank and Union bodies that request data holders to make data available where there is an exceptional need for those data for the performance of a specific task carried out in the public interest and to the data holders that provide those data in response to such request;

(f) providers of data processing services, irrespective of their place of establishment, providing such services to customers in the Union;

(g) participants in data spaces and vendors of applications using smart contracts and persons whose trade, business or profession involves the deployment of smart contracts for others in the context of executing an agreement.

This Regulation does not affect Union or national legal acts providing for the sharing of, access to and the use of data for the purpose of the prevention, investigation, detection or prosecution of criminal offences or for the execution of criminal penalties, or for customs and taxation purposes, in particular Regulations (EU) 2021/784, (EU) 2022/2065 and (EU) 2023/1543 and Directive (EU) 2023/1544, or international cooperation in that area. This Regulation does not apply to the collection or sharing of, access to or the use of data under Regulation (EU) 2015/847 and Directive (EU) 2015/849. This Regulation does not apply to areas that fall outside the scope of Union law and in any event does not affect the competences of the Member States concerning public security, defence or national security, regardless of the type of entity entrusted by the Member States to carry out tasks in relation to those competences, or their power to safeguard other essential State functions, including ensuring the territorial integrity of the State and the maintenance of law and order. This Regulation does not affect the competences of the Member States concerning customs and tax administration or the health and safety of citizens.

Article 2

Definitions

For the purposes of this Regulation, the following definitions apply:

(1) ‘data’ means any digital representation of acts, facts or information and any compilation of such acts, facts or information, including in the form of sound, visual or audio-visual recording;

(2) ‘metadata’ means a structured description of the contents or the use of data facilitating the discovery or use of that data;

(3) ‘personal data’ means personal data as defined in Article 4, point (1), of Regulation (EU) 2016/679;

(4) ‘non-personal data’ means data other than personal data;

(5) ‘connected product’ means an item that obtains, generates or collects data concerning its use or environment and that is able to communicate product data via an electronic communications service, physical connection or on-device access, and whose primary function is not the storing, processing or transmission of data on behalf of any party other than the user;

(6) ‘related service’ means a digital service, other than an electronic communications service, including software, which is connected with the product at the time of the purchase, rent or lease in such a way that its absence would prevent the connected product from performing one or more of its functions, or which is subsequently connected to the product by the manufacturer or a third party to add to, update or adapt the functions of the connected product;

(7) ‘processing’ means any operation or set of operations which is performed on data or on sets of data, whether or not by automated means, such as collection, recording, organisation, structuring, storage, adaptation or alteration, retrieval, consultation, use, disclosure by transmission, dissemination, or other means of making them available, alignment or combination, restriction, erasure or destruction;

(8) ‘data processing service’ means a digital service that is provided to a customer and that enables ubiquitous and on-demand network access to a shared pool of configurable, scalable and elastic computing resources of a centralised, distributed or highly distributed nature that can be rapidly provisioned and released with minimal management effort or service provider interaction;

(9) ‘same service type’ means a set of data processing services that share the same primary objective, data processing service model and main functionalities;

(10) ‘data intermediation service’ means data intermediation service as defined in Article 2, point (11), of Regulation (EU) 2022/868;

(11) ‘data subject’ means data subject as referred to in Article 4, point (1), of Regulation (EU) 2016/679;

(12) ‘user’ means a natural or legal person that owns a connected product or to whom temporary rights to use that connected product have been contractually transferred, or that receives related services;

(13) ‘data holder’ means a natural or legal person that has the right or obligation, in accordance with this Regulation, applicable Union law or national legislation adopted in accordance with Union law, to use and make available data, including, where contractually agreed, product data or related service data which it has retrieved or generated during the provision of a related service;

(14) ‘data recipient’ means a natural or legal person, acting for purposes which are related to that person’s trade, business, craft or profession, other than the user of a connected product or related service, to whom the data holder makes data available, including a third party following a request by the user to the data holder or in accordance with a legal obligation under Union law or national legislation adopted in accordance with Union law;

(15) ‘product data’ means data generated by the use of a connected product that the manufacturer designed to be retrievable, via an electronic communications service, physical connection or on-device access, by a user, data holder or a third party, including, where relevant, the manufacturer;

(16) ‘related service data’ means data representing the digitisation of user actions or of events related to the connected product, recorded intentionally by the user or generated as a by-product of the user’s action during the provision of a related service by the provider;

(17) ‘readily available data’ means product data and related service data that a data holder lawfully obtains or can lawfully obtain from the connected product or related service, without disproportionate effort going beyond a simple operation;

(18) ‘trade secret’ means trade secret as defined in Article 2, point (1), of Directive (EU) 2016/943;

(19) ‘trade secret holder’ means a trade secret holder as defined in Article 2, point (2), of Directive (EU) 2016/943;

(20) ‘profiling’ means profiling as defined in Article 4, point (4), of Regulation (EU) 2016/679;

(21) ‘making available on the market’ means any supply of a connected product for distribution, consumption or use on the Union market in the course of a commercial activity, whether in return for payment or free of charge;

(22) ‘placing on the market’ means the first making available of a connected product on the Union market;

(23) ‘consumer’ means any natural person who is acting for purposes which are outside that person’s trade, business, craft or profession;

(24) ‘enterprise’ means a natural or legal person that, in relation to contracts and practices covered by this Regulation, is acting for purposes which are related to that person’s trade, business, craft or profession;

(25) ‘small enterprise’ means a small enterprise as defined in Article 2(2) of the Annex to Recommendation 2003/361/EC;

(26) ‘microenterprise’ means a microenterprise as defined in Article 2(3) of the Annex to Recommendation 2003/361/EC;

(27) ‘Union bodies’ means the Union bodies, offices and agencies set up by or pursuant to acts adopted on the basis of the Treaty on European Union, the TFEU or the Treaty establishing the European Atomic Energy Community;

(28) ‘public sector body’ means national, regional or local authorities of the Member States and bodies governed by public law of the Member States, or associations formed by one or more such authorities or one or more such bodies;

(29) ‘public emergency’ means an exceptional situation, limited in time, such as a public health emergency, an emergency resulting from natural disasters, a human-induced major disaster, including a major cybersecurity incident, negatively affecting the population of the Union or the whole or part of a Member State, with a risk of serious and lasting repercussions for living conditions or economic stability, financial stability, or the substantial and immediate degradation of economic assets in the Union or the relevant Member State and which is determined or officially declared in accordance with the relevant procedures under Union or national law;

(30) ‘customer’ means a natural or legal person that has entered into a contractual relationship with a provider of data processing services with the objective of using one or more data processing services;

(31) ‘virtual assistants’ means software that can process demands, tasks or questions including those based on audio, written input, gestures or motions, and that, based on those demands, tasks or questions, provides access to other services or controls the functions of connected products;

(32) ‘digital assets’ means elements in digital form, including applications, for which the customer has the right of use, independently from the contractual relationship with the data processing service it intends to switch from;

(33) ‘on-premises ICT infrastructure’ means ICT infrastructure and computing resources owned, rented or leased by the customer, located in the data centre of the customer itself and operated by the customer or by a third-party;

(34) ‘switching’ means the process involving a source provider of data processing services, a customer of a data processing service and, where relevant, a destination provider of data processing services, whereby the customer of a data processing service changes from using one data processing service to using another data processing service of the same service type, or other service, offered by a different provider of data processing services, or to an on-premises ICT infrastructure, including through extracting, transforming and uploading the data;

(35) ‘data egress charges’ means data transfer fees charged to customers for extracting their data through the network from the ICT infrastructure of a provider of data processing services to the system of a different provider or to on-premises ICT infrastructure;

(36) ‘switching charges’ means charges, other than standard service fees or early termination penalties, imposed by a provider of data processing services on a customer for the actions mandated by this Regulation for switching to the system of a different provider or to on-premises ICT infrastructure, including data egress charges;

(37) ‘functional equivalence’ means re-establishing on the basis of the customer’s exportable data and digital assets, a minimum level of functionality in the environment of a new data processing service of the same service type after the switching process, where the destination data processing service delivers a materially comparable outcome in response to the same input for shared features supplied to the customer under the contract;

(38) ‘exportable data’, for the purpose of Articles 23 to 31 and Article 35, means the input and output data, including metadata, directly or indirectly generated, or cogenerated, by the customer’s use of the data processing service, excluding any assets or data protected by intellectual property rights, or constituting a trade secret, of providers of data processing services or third parties;

(39) ‘smart contract’ means a computer program used for the automated execution of an agreement or part thereof, using a sequence of electronic data records and ensuring their integrity and the accuracy of their chronological ordering;

(40) ‘interoperability’ means the ability of two or more data spaces or communication networks, systems, connected products, applications, data processing services or components to exchange and use data in order to perform their functions;

(41) open interoperability specification’ means a technical specification in the field of information and communication technologies which is performance oriented towards achieving interoperability between data processing services;

(42) ‘common specifications’ means a document, other than a standard, containing technical solutions providing a means to comply with certain requirements and obligations established under this Regulation;

(43) ‘harmonised standard’ means a harmonised standard as defined in Article 2, point (1)(c), of Regulation (EU) No 1025/2012.

CHAPTER II

BUSINESS TO CONSUMER AND BUSINESS TO BUSINESS DATA SHARING

Article 3

Obligation to make product data and related service data accessible to the user

(a) the type, format and estimated volume of product data which the connected product is capable of generating;

(b) whether the connected product is capable of generating data continuously and in real-time;

(c) whether the connected product is capable of storing data on-device or on a remote server, including, where applicable, the intended duration of retention;

(d) how the user may access, retrieve or, where relevant, erase the data, including the technical means to do so, as well as their terms of use and quality of service.

(a) the nature, estimated volume and collection frequency of product data that the prospective data holder is expected to obtain and, where relevant, the arrangements for the user to access or retrieve such data, including the prospective data holder’s data storage arrangements and the duration of retention;

(b) the nature and estimated volume of related service data to be generated, as well as the arrangements for the user to access or retrieve such data, including the prospective data holder’s data storage arrangements and the duration of retention;

(c) whether the prospective data holder expects to use readily available data itself and the purposes for which those data are to be used, and whether it intends to allow one or more third parties to use the data for purposes agreed upon with the user;

(d) the identity of the prospective data holder, such as its trading name and the geographical address at which it is established and, where applicable, of other data processing parties;

(e) the means of communication which make it possible to contact the prospective data holder quickly and communicate with that data holder efficiently;

(f) how the user can request that the data are shared with a third party and, where applicable, end the data sharing;

(g) the user’s right to lodge a complaint alleging an infringement of any of the provisions of this Chapter with the competent authority designated pursuant to Article 37;

(h) whether a prospective data holder is the holder of trade secrets contained in the data that is accessible from the connected product or generated during the provision of a related service, and, where the prospective data holder is not the trade secret holder, the identity of the trade secret holder;

(i) the duration of the contract between the user and the prospective data holder, as well as the arrangements for terminating such a contract.

Article 4

The rights and obligations of users and data holders with regard to access, use and making available product data and related service data

(a) lodge, in accordance with Article 37(5), point (b), a complaint with the competent authority; or

(b) agree with the data holder to refer the matter to a dispute settlement body in accordance with Article 10(1).

(a) lodge, in accordance with Article 37(5), point (b), a complaint with the competent authority, which shall, without undue delay, decide whether and under which conditions data sharing is to start or resume; or

(b) agree with the data holder to refer the matter to a dispute settlement body in accordance with Article 10(1).

Article 5

Right of the user to share data with third parties

(a) solicit or commercially incentivise a user in any manner, including by providing monetary or any other compensation, to make data available to one of its services that the user has obtained pursuant to a request under Article 4(1);

(b) solicit or commercially incentivise a user to request the data holder to make data available to one of its services pursuant to paragraph 1 of this Article;

(c) receive data from a user that the user has obtained pursuant to a request under Article 4(1).

(a) lodge, in accordance with Article 37(5), point (b), a complaint with the competent authority, which shall, without undue delay, decide whether and under which conditions the data sharing is to start or resume; or

(b) agree with the data holder to refer the matter to a dispute settlement body in accordance with Article 10(1).

Article 6

Obligations of third parties receiving data at the request of the user

(a) make the exercise of choices or rights under Article 5 and this Article by the user unduly difficult, including by offering choices to the user in a non-neutral manner, or by coercing, deceiving or manipulating the user, or by subverting or impairing the autonomy, decision-making or choices of the user, including by means of a user digital interface or a part thereof;

(b) notwithstanding Article 22(2), points (a) and (c), of Regulation (EU) 2016/679, use the data it receives for the profiling, unless it is necessary to provide the service requested by the user;

(c) make the data it receives available to another third party, unless the data is made available on the basis of a contract with the user, and provided that the other third party takes all necessary measures agreed between the data holder and the third party to preserve the confidentiality of trade secrets;

(d) make the data it receives available to an undertaking designated as a gatekeeper pursuant to Article 3 of Regulation (EU) 2022/1925;

(e) use the data it receives to develop a product that competes with the connected product from which the accessed data originate or share the data with another third party for that purpose; third parties shall also not use any non-personal product data or related service data made available to them to derive insights about the economic situation, assets and production methods of, or use by, the data holder;

(f) use the data it receives in a manner that has an adverse impact on the security of the connected product or related service;

(g) disregard the specific measures agreed with a data holder or with the trade secrets holder pursuant to Article 5(9) and undermine the confidentiality of trade secrets;

(h) prevent the user that is a consumer, including on the basis of a contract, from making the data it receives available to other parties.

Article 7

Scope of business-to-consumer and business-to-business data sharing obligations

The same shall apply to data generated through the use of connected products manufactured by or related services provided by an enterprise that has qualified as a medium-sized enterprise under Article 2 of the Annex to Recommendation 2003/361/EC for less than one year and to connected products for one year after the date on which they were placed on the market by a medium-sized enterprise.

CHAPTER III

OBLIGATIONS FOR DATA HOLDERS OBLIGED TO MAKE DATA AVAILABLE PURSUANT TO UNION LAW

Article 8

Conditions under which data holders make data available to data recipients

Article 9

Compensation for making data available

(a) costs incurred in making the data available, including, in particular, the costs necessary for the formatting of data, dissemination via electronic means and storage;

(b) investments in the collection and production of data, where applicable, taking into account whether other parties contributed to obtaining, generating or collecting the data in question.

Article 10

Dispute settlement

(a) it is impartial and independent, and it is to issue its decisions in accordance with clear, non-discriminatory and fair rules of procedure;